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2021-05-25 18:32:56 Notes on Anatomy of Flowering Plants (Discussed on Session 12 of NCERT Workshop)


A tissue may be defined as, “a group of similar or dissimilar cells having common origin and performing a specific functions.”

Tissues are mainly divided into three categories:

(A) Meristematic tissues or Meristems

(B) Permanent tissue

(C) Secretory tissue

Meristematic Tissues or Meristems
(1) They contain immature and young cells and are capable of repeated divisions.

(2) Intercellular spaces are not present in meristematic tissue.

(3) They contain a homogeneous thin wall.

(4) They contain large nuclei associated with abundant cytoplasm.

(5) They are metabolically very active but they do not store food material.

(6) Only proto-plastids are present instead of plastids, chloroplast absent.

(7) Dense cytoplasm is present which contains several premature mitochondria.

(8) Vacuoles are absent.

(9) Meristematic cells are isodiametric in shape.

Types of meristems
The meristems may be classified on the basis of their mode of origin, position or function:

(i) According to origin and development: On the basis of origin, meristematic tissues are of three types :

(a) Promeristem or Primordial meristem: The promeristem originates from embryo and, therefore, called primordial or embryonic meristem. It is present in the regions where an organ or a part of plant body is initiated.

(b) Primary meristem: A primary meristem originates from promeristem and retains its meristematic activity. It is located in the apices of roots, stems and the leaf primordia.

(c) Secondary Meristem: They always arise in permanent tissues and have no typical promeristem. Some living permanent cells may regain the meristematic nature.

(ii) According to position: On the basis of their position in the plant body meristems are classified into three categories:

(a) Apical meristem: This meristem is located at the growing apices of main and lateral shoots and roots. These cells are responsible for linear growth of an organ.

(b) Intercalary meristem: These are the portions of apical meristems which are separated from the apex during the growth of axis and formation of permanent tissues. It is present mostly at the base of node (e.g., Mentha viridis-Mint), base of internode (e.g., stem of many monocots viz., Wheat, Grasses, Pteridophyts like Equisetum) or at the base of the leaf (e.g., Pinus).

(c) Lateral meristem: These meristems occur laterally in the axis, parallel to the sides of stems and roots. This meristem consists of initials which divide mainly in one plane (periclinal) and result increase in the diameter of an organ.

(iii) According to function: Haberlandt in 1890 classified the primary meristem at the apex of stem under the following three types :

(a) Protoderm: It is the outermost layer of the apical meristem which develops into the epidermis or epidermal tissue system.

(b) Procambium: It occurs inside the protoderm. Some of the cells of young growing region which by their elongation and differentiation give rise to primary vascular tissue constitute the procambium.

(c) Ground meristem: It constitutes the major part of the apical meristem develops ground tissues like hypodermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, pith and medullary rays.

(iv) According to plane of cell division: On the basis of their plane of cell division meristem are classified into three categories :

(a) Mass meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in all planes, so mass of cells is formed. e.g., formation of spores, cortex, pith, endosperm.

(b) Plate meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in two planes, so plate like area increased. e.g., formation of epidermis and lamina of leaves.

(c) Rib or File meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in one plane, so row or column of cells is formed. e.g,, formation of lateral root.


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2021-05-24 19:51:35 Theory of evolution was given by: Charles Darwin.

* Photo-respiration is: Energy spending process.

* Mass flow is affected by: Transpiration.

* Conversion of fat to sugar occurs in: Glyoxysomes.

* Photorespiration occurs in: Chloroplast.

* Photosynthesis is an: Oxidation -reduction process.

* Photo system II is absent in: C4plants.

* Conversion of fat into carbohydrate is in: Glyoxylate cycle.

* Precursor of IAA is: Tryptophan.

* Cobalt as a constituent of: Vit. B12

* Law of tolerance introduced by: Shelford.

* Glycolysis occurs in the part of cell: Cytoplasm

* Krebs cycle & ETC occurs in: Mitochondria

* Final product of Glycolysis is: Pyruvate.

* Light or hill reaction takes place in: Grana of chloroplast.

* Dark reaction or Calvin cycle takes place in: Stroma of chloroplast.

* Most abundant protein in the world: Rubisco.

* One molecule of glucose is produced: 686 Kcal.

* Highest water use efficiency order: CAM> C4>C3.

* Kranz type leaf anatomy found in: C4 plants.

* Calvin cycle & hatch- slack occurs in: Chloroplast.

* Photosynthetic rate highest in: C4 plants.

* Glucose is a type of sugar: Monosaccharide.

* Sugar which is sweetest among all sugars: Fructose.

* Examples of disaccharides are: Maltose, lactose, sucrose.

* Non reducing sugar: Sucrose.

* Sugar found in gernminating seeds: Maltose.

* Lactose (milk sugar) is a combination: Glucose + Galactose

* Bond that joins amino acids: peptide Open / Comment

2021-05-23 20:47:05 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUGARS Open / Comment

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2021-05-23 09:45:54 𝐀𝐂𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐈𝐓𝐘 𝐒𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐄𝐒 𝐎𝐅 𝐌𝐄𝐓𝐀𝐋𝐒
Potassium>Sodium>Calcium>Magnesium>Aluminium>(Carbon)>Zinc>Iron>Tin>Lead>(Hydrogen)>Copper>Mercury>Silver>Gold>Platinum


𝑴𝑵𝑬𝑼𝑴𝑶𝑵𝑰𝑪𝑺

Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra I Like Her Call Smart Goat

Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit

Note that Carbon and Hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline. Open / Comment

2021-05-20 20:48:32 Healthy heart valves:

- Tricuspid valve: Located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
- Pulmonary valve: Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
- Mitral valve: Located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
- Aortic valve. Located between the left ventricle and the aorta. Open / Comment

2021-05-19 14:22:48 ACROSTICS MNEMONICS Open / Comment

2021-05-19 05:30:45 Aortic stenosis

Hands
The hands can provide lots of clinically relevant information and therefore a focused, structured assessment is essential.

Inspection
General observations
Inspect the hands and note your findings:

Colour: pallor suggests poor peripheral perfusion (e.g. congestive heart failure) and cyanosis may indicate underlying hypoxaemia.
Tar staining: caused by smoking, a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease (e.g. aortic stenosis, coronary artery disease, hypertension).
Xanthomata: raised yellow cholesterol-rich deposits that are often noted on the palm, tendons of the wrist and elbow. Xanthomata are associated with hyperlipidaemia (typically familial hypercholesterolaemia), another important risk factor for cardiovascular disease (e.g. aortic stenosis, coronary artery disease, hypertension).


Palpation
Temperature
Place the dorsal aspect of your hand onto the patient’s to assess temperature:

In healthy individuals, the hands should be symmetrically warm, suggesting adequate perfusion.
Cool hands may suggest poor peripheral perfusion (e.g. congestive cardiac failure, acute coronary syndrome).
Cool and sweaty/clammy hands are typically associated with acute coronary syndrome.


Capillary refill time (CRT)
Measuring capillary refill time (CRT) in the hands is a useful way of assessing peripheral perfusion:

Apply five seconds of pressure to the distal phalanx of one of a patient’s fingers and then release.
In healthy individuals, the initial pallor of the area you compressed should return to its normal colour in less than two seconds.
A CRT that is greater than two seconds suggests poor peripheral perfusion (e.g. hypovolaemia, congestive heart failure) and the need to assess central capillary refill time.


Pulses and blood pressure
Radial pulse
Palpate the patient’s radial pulse, located at the radial side of the wrist, with the tips of your index and middle fingers aligned longitudinally over the course of the artery.

Once you have located the radial pulse, assess the rate and rhythm.

Brachial pulse
Palpate the brachial pulse
Palpate the brachial pulse in their right arm, assessing volume and character:

1. Support the patient’s right forearm with your left hand.

2. Position the patient so that their upper arm is abducted, their elbow is partially flexed and their forearm is externally rotated.

3. With your right hand, palpate medial to the biceps brachii tendon and lateral to the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Deeper palpation is required (compared to radial pulse palpation) due to the location of the brachial artery.

Types of pulse character
Normal
Slow-rising (associated with aortic stenosis)
Bounding (associated with aortic regurgitation and also CO2 retention)
Thready (associated with intravascular hypovolaemia in conditions such as sepsis)


Blood pressure
Measure the blood pressure
Measure the patient’s blood pressure in both arms (see our blood pressure guide for more details).

Blood pressure abnormalities
Blood pressure abnormalities may include:

Hypertension: blood pressure of greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg if under 80 years old or greater than or equal to 150/90 mmHg if you’re over 80 years old).
Hypotension: blood pressure of less than 90/60 mmHg.
Narrow pulse pressure: less than 25 mmHg of difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Causes include aortic stenosis, congestive heart failure and cardiac tamponade.
Wide pulse pressure: more than 100 mmHg of difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Causes include aortic regurgitation and aortic dissection.
Difference between arms: more than 20 mmHg difference in blood pressure between each arm is abnormal and may suggest aortic dissection. Open / Comment

2021-05-17 14:50:00 Splenic palpation and percussion

A palpable spleen is at least TWICE its normal size.

Palpate from the right iliac fossa towards the left upper quadrant (ask the child to take deep breaths if appropriate). The edge is usually soft and you will be unable to get above it. The splenic notch is occasionally palpable if markedly enlarged. The spleen should move with respiration.

Measure the degree of extension below the costal margin (in cm) in the mid-clavicular line.

Percuss to delineate the lower border (splenic tissue will be dull to percussion).


Causes of splenomegaly
There are several potential causes of splenomegaly including:

Infection: infectious mononucleosis, malaria, leishmaniasis
Haematological: haemolytic anaemia
Malignancy: leukaemia, lymphoma
Other: portal hypertension, Still’s disease
Apparent splenomegaly: chest hyper-expansion (e.g. bronchiolitis/asthma) Open / Comment

2021-05-14 04:27:41 𝘾𝙃𝙀𝙈𝙄𝙎𝙏𝙍𝙔 𝐇𝐀𝐍𝐃𝐖𝐑𝐈𝐓𝐓𝐄𝐍 𝐍𝐎𝐓𝐄𝐒

𝐂𝐋𝐈𝐂𝐊 𝐎𝐍 𝐓𝐇𝐄 𝐂𝐇𝐀𝐏𝐓𝐄𝐑 𝐍𝐀𝐌𝐄 𝐓𝐎 𝐆𝐄𝐓 𝐓𝐇𝐄 𝐍𝐎𝐓𝐄𝐒 𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐊

𝙈𝙊𝙇𝙀 𝘾𝙊𝙉𝘾𝙀𝙋𝙏

𝘼𝙏𝙊𝙈𝙄𝘾 𝙎𝙏𝙍𝙐𝘾𝙏𝙐𝙍𝙀

𝙋𝙀𝙍𝙄𝙊𝘿𝙄𝘾 𝙏𝘼𝘽𝙇𝙀

𝘾𝙃𝙀𝙈𝙄𝘾𝘼𝙇 𝘽𝙊𝙉𝘿𝙄𝙉𝙂

𝙂𝘼𝙎𝙀𝙊𝙐𝙎 𝙎𝙏𝘼𝙏𝙀

𝙏𝙃𝙀𝙍𝙈𝙊𝘿𝙔𝙉𝘼𝙈𝙄𝘾𝙎

𝘾𝙃𝙀𝙈𝙄𝘾𝘼𝙇 𝙀𝙌𝙐𝙄𝙇𝙄𝘽𝙍𝙄𝙐𝙈

𝙄𝙊𝙉𝙄𝘾 𝙀𝙌𝙐𝙄𝙇𝙄𝘽𝙍𝙄𝙐𝙈

𝙎 𝘽𝙇𝙊𝘾𝙆 𝙀𝙇𝙀𝙈𝙀𝙉𝙏𝙎

𝘽𝙊𝙍𝙊𝙉 𝘼𝙉𝘿 𝘾𝘼𝙍𝘽𝙊𝙉 𝙁𝘼𝙈𝙄𝙇𝙔

𝙍𝙀𝘿𝙊𝙓 𝙍𝙀𝘼𝘾𝙏𝙄𝙊𝙉

𝙋 𝘽𝙇𝙊𝘾𝙆 𝙂𝙍𝙊𝙐𝙋- 15,16,17,18

𝘿 𝘼𝙉𝘿 𝙁 𝘽𝙇𝙊𝘾𝙆 𝙀𝙇𝙀𝙈𝙀𝙉𝙏𝙎

𝘾𝙊𝙊𝙍𝘿𝙄𝙉𝘼𝙏𝙄𝙊𝙉 𝘾𝙊𝙈𝙋𝙊𝙐𝙉𝘿𝙎

𝙄𝙐𝙋𝘼𝘾 𝙉𝙊𝙈𝙀𝙉𝘾𝙇𝘼𝙏𝙐𝙍𝙀

𝙄𝙎𝙊𝙈𝙀𝙍𝙄𝙎𝙈

𝙂𝙊𝘾 1

𝙂𝙊𝘾 2.

𝘾𝙃𝙀𝙈𝙄𝘾𝘼𝙇 𝙆𝙄𝙉𝙀𝙏𝙄𝘾𝙎

𝙀𝙇𝙀𝘾𝙏𝙍𝙊𝘾𝙃𝙀𝙈𝙄𝙎𝙏𝙍𝙔

𝙎𝙊𝙇𝙐𝙏𝙄𝙊𝙉

𝙃𝙔𝘿𝙍𝙊𝘾𝘼𝙍𝘽𝙊𝙉

𝙃𝘼𝙇𝙊𝙂𝙀𝙉 𝘿𝙀𝙍𝙄𝙑𝘼𝙏𝙄𝙑𝙀

𝘼𝙇𝘾𝙊𝙃𝙊𝙇 𝙋𝙃𝙀𝙉𝙊𝙇 𝘼𝙉𝘿 𝙀𝙏𝙃𝙀𝙍𝙎

𝘼𝙇𝘿𝙀𝙃𝙔𝘿𝙀 𝘼𝙉𝘿 𝙆𝙀𝙏𝙊𝙉𝙀

𝙉- 𝘾𝙊𝙉𝙏𝘼𝙄𝙉𝙄𝙉𝙂 𝘾𝙊𝙈𝙋𝙊𝙐𝙉𝘿𝙎

𝙎𝙊𝙇𝙄𝘿 𝙎𝙏𝘼𝙏𝙀

𝙄𝙈𝙋𝙊𝙍𝙏𝘼𝙉𝙏 𝙊𝙍𝙂𝘼𝙉𝙄𝘾 𝘾𝙊𝙉𝙑𝙀𝙍𝙎𝙄𝙊𝙉

●▬▬▬ஜ۩۞۩ஜ▬▬▬●●▬▬▬ஜ۩۞۩ஜ▬▬▬●

𝕆𝕌ℝ 𝔸𝕀𝕄 𝕀𝕊 𝕋𝕆 𝕊𝔸𝕍𝔼 𝕐𝕆𝕌ℝ 𝕋𝕀𝕄𝔼 Open / Comment