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2022-01-05 05:56:36 SACHIN RANA INORGANIC NOTES
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2022-01-04 12:30:18 Notes on Chemical Bonding
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Chemical bond:-

Chemical bond is the attractive force which holds various constituents together in a molecule.

There are three types of chemical bonds: Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, Co-ordinate Bond.

Octet Rule:

Atoms form chemical bonds in order to complete their octet i.e. eight electrons in their valence shell.

Lewis Structures:

Pair of bonded electrons is by means of a ‘dash’ (-) usually called a ‘bond’.

Lone pairs or ‘non-bonded’ electrons are represented by ‘dots’.

Electrons present in the last shell of atoms are called valence electrons.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

Species with odd number of electrons: NO, NO2,

Incomplete octet for the central atom: LiCl, BeH2 and BCl3

Expanded octet for the central atom: PF5, SF6 and H2SO4

Formal Charge:

Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and number of electrons assigned to that atoms in Lewis structure.

Formal charge = [Total number of valence electrons in the free atom ) - (Total number of lone pairs of electrons) -1/2(Total number of shared electrons i.e. bonding electrons)]

Resonance:

For molecules and ions showing resonance it is not possible to draw a single Lewis structure.

All the properties of such species can only be explained by two or more Lewis structures. Example: Resonance of O3

Ionic Bonding:

Formation of Ionic Bond:
Formation of ionic bond takes place between a metal and a non-metal by transfer of electron.

Formation of gaseous cations

A(g) + I.E. → A+ (g) + e

Ionization Energy

Formation of gaseous anions

X(g) + e → X- (g) + E.A

Electron Affinity

Packing of ions of opposite charges to form ionic solids

A+ (g) + X- (g) →AX (s) +Energy

Lattice energy

Conditions required of formation of ionic bonds:

Low I.E of cation.

High E.A of anion.

High lattice energy.

Covalent Bonding:

Covalent bond is formed between two non-metals by sharing of electrons.

Electron pairs which participate in bonding are called bond pairs.

Electron pairs which do not participate in bonding are called lone pairs.

There could be single, double or triple covalent bonds between two elements depending on the number of electrons being shared.

VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory:

The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs present in the valence shell.

Order of the repulsion: Lone pair.Lone pair > Lone pair. Bond pair > Bond pair. Bond pair.

Repulsion among the bond pairs is directly proportional to the bond order and electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms.

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2022-01-03 15:21:06 Vidhyamandir Classes Self Study Material Chemistry

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2022-01-03 11:50:58 Name Reactions Of Halides Open / Comment

2022-01-03 11:50:58 𝐌𝐧𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐬 and 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐬 for 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐠𝐢 𝐞𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬.

𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐲𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐬-
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤:- Agar Usne Puccha To 𝐁𝐚𝐬.

𝐀𝐠𝐚𝐫- Agaricus (mushroom)

𝐔𝐬𝐧𝐞- Ustilago (rust fungus)

𝐏𝐮𝐜𝐡𝐡𝐚- Puccnia (smut fungus)

Ascomyce𝐭𝐞𝐬-
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤:- Yash and Astha ne Naya Pencil 𝐊𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐚

𝐲𝐚𝐬𝐡- Yeast

𝐀𝐬𝐭𝐡𝐚- 𝐀𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐠𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬

𝐍𝐚𝐲𝐚- 𝐍𝐞𝐮𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐚

𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐥- Penecillium

Many 𝐦𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐬 like 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐬 and 𝐛𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐬 are e𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 and are considered 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬.

𝐏𝐡𝐲𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐲𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐬-
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐬:-RaMu Alu Pheco
Ra- Rhyzopus (bread mould)

𝐌𝐮- Mucor

𝐀𝐥𝐮- Albugo (parasitic fungi on mustard)

𝐏𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐨- Pythium

𝐃𝐞𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐲𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐬 _
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐬:- 𝐀𝐂𝐓

𝐀- alterneria

𝐂- Collectotrichum

𝐓 - 𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚


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2022-01-03 11:50:58 SOME TERMS RELATED TO EVOLUTION

Adaptation:

Changing to fit a niche or survive in an environment

Anatomy:

Study of the structures of organisms

Artificial Selection:

Characteristics selected by humans

Biogeography:

Study of how species are distributed across the Earth

Biological Species:

Individuals that can interbreed and produce viable offspring

Catastrophism:

Changes in species that happen because of quick and often violent natural phenomena

Cladistics:

Method of classifying species in groups based on ancestral relationships

Cladogram:

Diagram of how species are related

Coevolution:

One species changing in response to changes in another species that it interacts with, particularly predator/prey relationships

Creationism:

Belief that a higher power created all life

Darwinism:

Term commonly used as a synonym for evolution

Descent With Modification:

Passing down traits that might change over time

Directional Selection:

Type of natural selection in which an extreme characteristic is favored


Disruptive Selection:

Type of natural selection that favors both extremes and selects against the average characteristics

Embryology:

Study of the earliest stages of development of an organism

Endosymbiotic Theory:

Currently accepted theory as to how cells evolved

Eukaryote:

Organism made of cells that have membrane-bound organelles

Evolution:

Change in populations over time

Fossil Record:

All known traces of past life ever found

Fundamental Niche:

All available roles an individual can play in an ecosystem

Genetics:

Study of traits and how they are passed down from generation to generation

Gradualism:

Changes in species that happen over long periods of time

Habitat:

Area in which an organism lives

Homologous Structures:

Body parts on different species that are similar and most likely evolved from a common ancestor

Hydrothermal Vents:

Very hot areas in the ocean where primitive life might have begun

Intelligent Design:

Belief that a higher power created life and its changes

Macroevolution:

Changes in populations at the species level, including ancestral relationships

Mass Extinction:

Event in which large numbers of species died out completely

Microevolution:

Changes in species at a molecular or gene level..... Open / Comment

2022-01-03 11:50:21 Hi bachhon. Not feeling too well today. Will take this class tomorrow. Regards, Gaurav sir Open / Comment

2022-01-03 11:50:21 Happy New year bachhon. May you achieve whatever you want in 2022. God bless you all Open / Comment

2021-12-26 17:55:22 Open / Comment